Microbial cellulases have shown their potential application in various industries including pulp and paper, textile, laundry, biofuel production, food and feed industry, brewing, and agriculture. Due to the complexity of enzyme system and immense industrial potential, cellulases have been a potential candidate for research by both the academic and industrial research groups. Nowadays, significant attentions have been devoted to the current knowledge of cellulase production and the challenges in cellulase research especially in the direction of improving the process economics of various industries. Scientific and technological developments and the future prospects for application of cellulases in different industries are discussed in this paper. 1. Introduction Biotechnological conversion of cellulosic biomass is potentially sustainable approach to develop novel bioprocesses and products. Microbial cellulases have become the focal biocatalysts due to their complex nature and wide spread industrial applications. Cellulases are composed of independently folding, structurally and functionally discrete units called domains or modules, making cellulases module [1]. Cellulases are inducible enzymes synthesized by a large diversity of microorganisms including both fungi and bacteria during their growth on cellulosic materials (Table 1) [2, 3]. These microorganisms can be aerobic, anaerobic, mesophilic or thermophilic. Among them, the genera of Clostridium, Cellulomonas, Thermomonospora, Trichoderma, and Aspergillus are the most extensively studied cellulase producer [4–7]. Table 1: Microorganisms having cellulolytic abilities. Structurally fungal cellulases are simpler as compared to bacterial cellulase systems, cellulosomes [8–10]. Fungal cellulases typically have two separate domains: a catalytic domain (CD) and a cellulose binding module (CBM), which is joined by a short polylinker region to the catalytic domain at the N-terminal. The CBM is comprised of approximately 35 amino acids, and the linker region is rich in serine and threonine. The main difference between cellulosomes and free cellulase enzyme is in the component of cellulosomes-cohesin containing scaffolding and dockerin containing enzyme. The free cellulase contains cellulose binding domains (CBMs), which are replaced by a dockerin in cellulosomal complex, and a single scaffolding-born CBM directs the entire cellulosomes complex to cellulosic biomass [11, 12]. Mechanistically, cellulase is a family of at least 3 groups of enzymes [10, 13–15], endo-(1,4)-β-D-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.4)
References
[1]
B. Henrissat, T. T. Teeri, and R. A. J. Warren, “A scheme for designating enzymes that hydrolyse the polysaccharides in the cell walls of plants,” FEBS Letters, vol. 425, no. 2, pp. 352–354, 1998.
[2]
C. P. Kubicek, “From cellulose to cellulase inducers: facts and fiction,” in Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium Trichoderma Reesei Cellulases and Other Hydrolases (TRICEL '93), P. Suominen and T. Reinikainen, Eds., vol. 8, pp. 181–188, Foundation for Biotechnical and Industrial Fermentation Research, Espoo, Finland, 1993.
[3]
L. Sang-Mok and Y. M. Koo, “Pilot-scale production of cellulase using Trichoderma reesei Rut C-30 in fed-batch mode,” Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 229–233, 2001.
[4]
Y. Sun and J. Cheng, “Hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials for ethanol production: a review,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 83, no. 1, pp. 1–11, 2002.
[5]
R. K. Sukumaran, R. R. Singhania, and A. Pandey, “Microbial cellulases—production, applications and challenges,” Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, vol. 64, no. 11, pp. 832–844, 2005.
[6]
R. C. Kuhad, R. Gupta, and Y. P. Khasa, “Bioethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass: an overview,” in Wealth from Waste, B. Lal, Ed., Teri Press, New Delhi, India, 2010.
[7]
R. C. Kuhad, M. Manchanda, and A. Singh, “Hydrolytic potential of extracellular enzymes from a mutant strain of Fusarium oxysporum,” Bioprocess Engineering, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 133–135, 1999.
[8]
E. A. Bayer, F. Morag, and R. Lamed, “The cellulosome—a treasure-trove for biotechnology,” Trends in Biotechnology, vol. 12, no. 9, pp. 379–386, 1994.
[9]
E. A. Bayer, H. Chanzy, R. Lamed, and Y. Shoham, “Cellulose, cellulases and cellulosomes,” Current Opinion in Structural Biology, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 548–557, 1998.
[10]
Y. H. Percival Zhang, M. E. Himmel, and J. R. Mielenz, “Outlook for cellulase improvement: screening and selection strategies,” Biotechnology Advances, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 452–481, 2006.
[11]
L. M. J. Carvalho, R. Deliza, C. A. B. Silva, R. M. Miranda, and M. C. A. Maia, “Identifying the adequate process conditions by consumers for pineapple juice using membrane technology,” Journal of Food Technology, vol. 1, pp. 150–156, 2003.
[12]
E. A. Bayer, J. P. Belaich, Y. Shoham, and R. Lamed, “The cellulosomes: multienzyme machines for degradation of plant cell wall polysaccharides,” Annual Review of Microbiology, vol. 58, pp. 521–554, 2004.
[13]
R. C. Kuhad, A. Singh, and K. E. Eriksson, “Microorganisms and enzymes involved in the degradation of plant fiber cell walls,” Advances in Biochemical Engineering Biotechnology, vol. 57, pp. 45–125, 1997.
[14]
M. E. Himmel, M. F. Ruth, and C. E. Wyman, “Cellulase for commodity products from cellulosic biomass,” Current Opinion in Biotechnology, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 358–364, 1999.
[15]
D. Deswal, Y. P. Khasa, and R. C. Kuhad, “Optimization of cellulase production by a brown rot fungus Fomitopsis sp. RCK2010 under Solid State Fermentation,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 102, no. 10, pp. 6065–6072, 2011.
[16]
A. Singh, “Engineering enzyme properties,” Indian Journal of Microbiology, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 65–77, 1999.
[17]
A. Singh, R. C. Kuhad, and O. P. Ward, “Industrial application of microbial cellulases,” in Lignocellulose Biotechnologgy: Future Prospects, R. C. Kuhad and A. Singh, Eds., pp. 345–358, I.K.International Publishing House, New Delhi, India, 2007.
[18]
C. Mai, U. Kües, and H. Militz, “Biotechnology in the wood industry,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 63, no. 5, pp. 477–494, 2004.
[19]
M. Akhtar, “Biochemical pulping of aspen wood chips with three strains of Ceriporiopsis subvermispora,” Holzforschung, vol. 48, pp. 199–202, 1994.
[20]
J. Pere, A. Puolakka, P. Nousiainen, and J. Buchert, “Action of purified Trichoderma reesei cellulases on cotton fibers and yarn,” Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 89, no. 2-3, pp. 247–255, 2001.
[21]
M. K. Bhat, “Cellulases and related enzymes in biotechnology,” Biotechnology Advances, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 355–383, 2000.
[22]
D. Dienes, A. Egyházi, and K. Réczey, “Treatment of recycled fiber with Trichoderma cellulases,” Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 11–21, 2004.
[23]
S. D. Mansfield, K. K. Y. Wong, E. De Jong, and J. N. Saddler, “Modification of Douglas-fir mechanical and kraft pulps by enzyme treatment,” Tappi Journal, vol. 79, no. 8, pp. 125–132, 1996.
[24]
J. Pere, M. Siika-aho, J. Buchert, and L. Viikari, “Effects of purified T. reesei cellulases on the fiber properties of kraft pulp,” Tappi Journal, vol. 78, no. 6, pp. 71–78, 1995.
[25]
P. Suominen and T. Reinikainen, “Foundation for biotechnical and industrial fermentation research,” in Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium on Trichoderma Reesei Cellulases and Other Hydrolases (TRICEL '93), vol. 8, Espoo, Finland, 1993.
[26]
R. Chander Kuhad, G. Mehta, R. Gupta, and K. K. Sharma, “Fed batch enzymatic saccharification of newspaper cellulosics improves the sugar content in the hydrolysates and eventually the ethanol fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae,” Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 34, no. 8, pp. 1189–1194, 2010.
[27]
R. P. Kibblewhite, A. D. Bawden, and C. L. Brindley, “TMP fiber and fines qualities of 13 radiata pine wood types,” APPITA, vol. 48, pp. 367–377, 1995.
[28]
R. C. Kuhad, R. Gupta, Y. P. Khasa, and A. Singh, “Bioethanol production from Lantana camara (red sage): pretreatment, saccharification and fermentation,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 101, no. 21, pp. 8348–8354, 2010.
[29]
G. Stork and J. Puls, “Changes in properties of different recycled pulps by endoglucanase treatments,” in Proceedings of the International Conference on Biotechnology in the Pulp and Paper Industry: Recent Advances in Applied and Fundamental Research, E. Srebotnik and K. Mesner, Eds., vol. 1, pp. 145–150, Facultas-Universitatsverlag, Vienna, Austria, 1996.
[30]
A. Karnis, “The role of latent and delatent mechanical pulp fines in sheet structure and pulp properties,” Paperi Ja Puu-Paper Timber, vol. 77, pp. 491–497, 1995.
[31]
A. Kantelinen, O. Jokinen, M.-L. Sarkki, et al., “Effects of enzymes on the stability of colloidal pitch,” in Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Wood and Pulping Chemistry, vol. 1, pp. 605–612, Helsinki, Finland, 1995.
[32]
J. Buchert, T. Oksanen, J. Pere, M. Siika-aho, A. Suurnakki, and L. Viikari, “Applications of Trichoderma reesei enzymes in the pulp and paper industry,” in Trichoderma & Gliocladium—Enzymes, G. F. Harman and C. P. Kubicek, Eds., vol. 2 of Biological Control and Commercial Applications, pp. 343–363, 1998.
[33]
S. M. Salonen, “Method for manufacturing paper or cardboard and product containing cellulase,” US patent 4980023, 1990.
[34]
J. C. Hsu and N. N. Lakhani, “Method of making absorbed tissue from recycled waste paper,” US patent 6413363, 2002.
[35]
M. Sharyo, H. Sakaguchi, M. Ohishi, et al., “Method of making sanitary paper from chemical pulp using a single component cellulase that does not contain cellulose-building domain,” US patent 6468391, 1978.
[36]
A. Hebeish and N. A. Ibrahim, “The impact of fronteir sciences on textile industry,” Colourage, vol. 54, pp. 41–55, 2007.
[37]
M. Karmakar and R. R. Ray, “Current trends in research and application of microbial cellulases,” Research Journal of Microbiology, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 41–53, 2011.
[38]
H. Uhlig, Industrial Enzymes and Their Applications, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA, 1998.
[39]
Y. M. Galante, A. DeConti, and R. Monteverdi, “Application of Trichoderma enzymes in food and feed industries,” in Trichoderma and Gliocladium—Enzymes, G. F. Harman and C. P. Kubicek, Eds., vol. 2 of Biological Control and Commercial Applications, pp. 311–326, Taylor & Francis, London, UK, 1998.
[40]
H. K. Sreenath, A. B. Shah, V. W. Yang, M. M. Gharia, and T. W. Jeffries, “Enzymatic polishing of jute/cotton blended fabrics,” Journal of Fermentation and Bioengineering, vol. 81, no. 1, pp. 18–20, 1996.
[41]
N. A. Ibrahim, K. El-Badry, B. M. Eid, and T. M. Hassan, “A new approach for biofinishing of cellulose-containing fabrics using acid cellulases,” Carbohydrate Polymers, vol. 83, no. 1, pp. 116–121, 2011.
[42]
J. O. Baker, J. R. McCarley, R. Lovett et al., “Catalytically enhanced endocellulase Cel5A from Acidothermus cellulolyticus,” Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology A, vol. 121, no. 1–3, pp. 129–148, 2005.
[43]
J. M. Cortez, J. Ellis, and D. P. Bishop, “Using cellulases to improve the dimensional stability of cellulosic fabrics,” Textile Research Journal, vol. 72, no. 8, pp. 673–680, 2002.
[44]
R. Gupta, Y. P. Khasa, and R. C. Kuhad, “Evaluation of pretreatment methods in improving the enzymatic saccharification of cellulosic materials,” Carbohydrate Polymers, vol. 84, pp. 1103–1109, 2011.
[45]
P. Ghosh and A. Singh, “Physicochemical and biological treatments for enzymatic/microbial conversion of lignocellulosic biomass,” Advances in Applied Microbiology, vol. 39, pp. 295–333, 1993.
[46]
C. E. Wyman, B. E. Dale, R. T. Elander, M. Holtzapple, M. R. Ladisch, and Y. Y. Lee, “Coordinated development of leading biomass pretreatment technologies,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 96, no. 18, pp. 1959–1966, 2005.
[47]
R. C. Kuhad and A. Singh, “Lignocellulose biotechnology: current and future prospects,” Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 151–172, 1993.
[48]
N. Mosier, C. Wyman, B. Dale et al., “Features of promising technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 96, no. 6, pp. 673–686, 2005.
[49]
B. Yang and C. E. Wyman, “Effect of xylan and lignin removal by batch and flowthrough pretreatment on the enzymatic digestibility of corn stover cellulose,” Biotechnology and Bioengineering, vol. 86, no. 1, pp. 88–95, 2004.
[50]
M. Taniguchi, H. Suzuki, D. Watanabe, K. Sakai, K. Hoshino, and T. Tanaka, “Evaluation of pretreatment with Pleurotus ostreatus for enzymatic hydrolysis of rice straw,” Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, vol. 100, no. 6, pp. 637–643, 2005.
[51]
D. Lee, A. H. C. Yu, and J. N. Saddler, “Evaluation of cellulase recycling strategies for the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic substrates,” Biotechnology and Bioengineering, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 328–336, 1995.
[52]
A. Singh, P. K. R. Kumar, and K. Schugerl, “Adsorption and reuse of cellulases during saccharification of cellulosic materials,” Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 205–212, 1991.
[53]
T. D. Bernardez, K. Lyford, D. A. Hogsett, and L. R. Lynd, “Adsorption of Clostridium thermocellum cellulases onto pretreated mixed hardwood, Avicel, and lignin,” Biotechnology and Bioengineering, vol. 42, no. 7, pp. 899–907, 1993.
[54]
B. Yang and C. E. Wyman, “Effect of xylan and lignin removal by batch and flowthrough pretreatment on the enzymatic digestibility of corn stover cellulose,” Biotechnology and Bioengineering, vol. 86, no. 1, pp. 88–95, 2004.
[55]
B. Yang and C. E. Wyman, “BSA treatment to enhance enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose in lignin containing substrates,” Biotechnology and Bioengineering, vol. 94, no. 4, pp. 611–617, 2006.
[56]
R. Kumar and C. E. Wyman, “Effect of additives on the digestibility of corn stover solids following pretreatment by leading technologies,” Biotechnology and Bioengineering, vol. 102, no. 6, pp. 1544–1557, 2009.
[57]
B. R. Scott, P. St-Pierre, J. Lavigne, N. Masri, T. C. White, and J. J. Tomashek, “Novel lignin-resistant cellulase enzymes,” US patent: 20100221778, 2010.
[58]
M. Tu, R. P. Chandra, and J. N. Saddler, “Evaluating the distribution of cellulases and the recycling of free cellulases during the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic substrates,” Biotechnology Progress, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 398–406, 2007.
[59]
F. Dourado, M. Bastos, M. Mota, and F. M. Gama, “Studies on the properties of Celluclast/Eudragit L-100 conjugate,” Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 99, no. 2, pp. 121–131, 2002.
[60]
C. W. Bamforth, “Current perspectives on the role of enzymes in brewing,” Journal of Cereal Science, vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 353–357, 2009.
[61]
A. M. Canales, R. Garza, J. A. Sierra, and R. Arnold, “The application of beta-glucanase with additional side activities in brewing,” MBAA Technical Quarterly, vol. 25, pp. 27–31, 1988.
[62]
J. Oksanen, J. Ahvenainen, and S. Home, “Microbial cellulase for improving filterability of wort and beer,” in Proceedings of the 20th European Brewery Chemistry Congress, pp. 419–425, Helsinki, Finland, 1985.
[63]
R. C. Minussi, G. M. Pastore, and N. Durán, “Potential applications of laccase in the food industry,” Trends in Food Science and Technology, vol. 13, no. 6-7, pp. 205–216, 2002.
[64]
L. M. J. de Carvalho, I. M. de Castro, and C. A. B. da Silva, “A study of retention of sugars in the process of clarification of pineapple juice (Ananas comosus, L. Merril) by micro- and ultra-filtration,” Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 87, no. 4, pp. 447–454, 2008.
[65]
R. A. Baker and L. Wicker, “Current and potential applications of enzyme infusion in the food industry,” Trends in Food Science and Technology, vol. 7, no. 9, pp. 279–284, 1996.
[66]
K. S. Youn, J. H. Hong, D. H. Bae, S. J. Kim, and S. D. Kim, “Effective clarifying process of reconstituted apple juice using membrane filtration with filter-aid pretreatment,” Journal of Membrane Science, vol. 228, no. 2, pp. 179–186, 2004.
[67]
P. Rai, G. C. Majumdar, S. Das Gupta, and S. De, “Effect of various pretreatment methods on permeate flux and quality during ultrafiltration of mosambi juice,” Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 78, no. 2, pp. 561–568, 2007.
[68]
C. Grassin and P. Fauquembergue, “Fruit juices,” in Industrial Enzymology, T. Godfrey and S. West, Eds., pp. 226–264, MacMillan Press, London, UK, 2nd edition, 1996.
[69]
H. U. Humpf and P. Schreier, “Bound aroma compounds from the fruit and the leaves of blackberry (Rubus laciniata, L.),” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 39, no. 10, pp. 1830–1832, 1991.
[70]
C. Marlatt, C. T. Ho, and M. Chien, “Studies of aroma constituents bound as glycosides in tomato,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 249–252, 1992.
[71]
T. R. Dhiman, M. S. Zaman, R. R. Gimenez, J. L. Walters, and R. Treacher, “Performance of dairy cows fed forage treated with fibrolytic enzymes prior to feeding,” Animal Feed Science and Technology, vol. 101, no. 1–4, pp. 115–125, 2002.
[72]
T. Godfrey and S. West, “Textiles,” in Industrial Enzymology, pp. 360–371, Macmillan Press, London, UK, 2nd edition, 1996.
[73]
S. Ali, J. Hall, K. L. Soole, et al., “Targeted expression of microbial cellulases in transgenic animals,” in Carbohydrate Bioengineering, S. B. Petersen, B. Svensson, and S. Pedersen, Eds., vol. 10 of Progress in Biotechnology, pp. 279–293, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1995.
B. Shrivastava, S. Thakur, Y. P. Khasa, A. Gupte, A. K. Puniya, and R. C. Kuhad, “White-rot fungal conversion of wheat straw to energy rich cattle feed,” Biodegradation, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 823–831, 2011.
[77]
H. Graham and D. Balnave, “Dietary enzymes for increasing energy availability,” in Biotechnology in Animal Feeds and Animal Feedings, R. J. Wallace and A. Chesson, Eds., pp. 296–309, VHC, Weinheim, Germany, 1995.
[78]
G. E. Lewis, C. W. Hunt, W. K. Sanchez, R. Treacher, G. T. Pritchard, and P. Feng, “Effect of direct-fed fibrolytic enzymes on the digestive characteristics of a forage-based diet fed to beef steers,” Journal of Animal Science, vol. 74, no. 12, pp. 3020–3028, 1996.
[79]
A. C. Paulo and G. M. Gubitz, Textile Processing with Enzymes, Woodhead, Cambridge, UK, 2003.
[80]
W. D. Cowan, “Animal feed,” in Industrial Enzymology, T. Godfrey and S. West, Eds., pp. 360–371, Macmillan Press, London, UK, 2nd edition, 1996.
[81]
N. K. Pazarlioglu, M. Sarii？ik, and A. Telefoncu, “Treating denim fabrics with immobilized commercial cellulases,” Process Biochemistry, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 767–771, 2005.
[82]
J. J. Pascual, “Recent advances on early weaning and nutrition around weaning,” in Proceedings of the 2nd Meeting of COST 848 Working Group 4, pp. 31–36, G？d？ll？, Hungary, 2001.
[83]
L. Fortun-Lamothe, T. Gidenne, L. Debray, and F. Chalaye, “Intake regulation, performances and health status according to feeding strategy around weaning,” in Proceedings of the Second Meeting of COST 848 Working Group 4, pp. 40–41, G？d？ll？, Hungary, 2001.
[84]
I. Chet, N. Benhamou, and S. Haran, “Mycoparatism and lytic enzymes,” in Trichoderma and Gliocladium—Enzymes, G. F. Harman and C. P. Kubicek, Eds., vol. 2 of Biological Control and Commercial Applications, pp. 327–342, Taylor & Francis, London, UK, 1998.
[85]
B. A. Bailey and R. D. Lumsden, “Direct efects of Trichoderma and Gliocladium on plant growth and resistance to pathogens,” in Trichoderma & Gliocladium—Enzymes, G. F. Harman and C. P. Kubicek, Eds., vol. 2 of Biological Control and Commercial Applications, pp. 327–342, Taylor & Francis, London, UK, 1998.
[86]
G. E. Harman and T. Bj？rkman, “Potential and existing uses of Trichoderma and Gliocladium for plant disease control and plant growth enhancement,” in Trichoderma and Gliocladium, C. P. Kubicek and G. E. Harman, Eds., vol. 2, pp. 229–265, Taylor and Francis, London, UK, 1998.
[87]
G. E. Harman and C. P. Kubicek, Trichoderma and Gliocladium: Enzymes, vol. 2 of Biological Control and Commercial Applications, Taylor & Francis, London, UK, 1998.
[88]
M. Lorito, C. K. Hayes, A. Di Pietro, S. L. Woo, and G. E. Harman, “Purification, characterization, and synergistic activity of a glucan 1,3-beta-glucosidase and an N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase from Trichoderma harzianum,” Phytopathology, vol. 84, no. 4, pp. 398–405, 1994.
[89]
A. Harkki, J. Uusitalo, M. Bailey, M. Penttila, and J. K. C. Knowles, “A novel fungal expression system: secretion of active calf chymosin from the filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei,” Biotechnology, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 596–603, 1989.
[90]
M. Penttila, “Heterologous protein production in Trichoderma,” in Trichoderma & Gliocladium-Enzymes, G. F. Harman and C. P. Kubicek, Eds., vol. 2 of Biological Control and Commercial Applications, pp. 365–382, Taylor & Francis, London, UK, 1998.
[91]
M. Saloheimo and M. L. Niku-Paavola, “Heterologous production of a ligninolytic enzyme: expression of the Phlebia radiata laccase gene in Trichoderma reesei,” Biotechnology, vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 987–990, 1991.
[92]
M. Saloheimo, V. Barajas, M. L. Niku-Paavola, and J. K. C. Knowles, “A lignin peroxidase-encoding cDNA from the white-rot fungus Phlebia radiata: characterization and expression in Trichoderma reesei,” Gene, vol. 85, no. 2, pp. 343–351, 1989.
[93]
M. E. Ortiz Escobar and N. V. Hue, “Temporal changes of selected chemical properties in three manure—amended soils of Hawaii,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 99, no. 18, pp. 8649–8654, 2008.
[94]
M. Tejada, J. L. Gonzalez, A. M. García-Martínez, and J. Parrado, “Application of a green manure and green manure composted with beet vinasse on soil restoration: effects on soil properties,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 99, no. 11, pp. 4949–4957, 2008.
[95]
R. M. Bowen and S. H. T. Harper, “Decomposition of wheat straw and related compounds by fungi isolated from straw in arable soils,” Soil Biology and Biochemistry, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 393–399, 1990.
[96]
V. N. Tiwari, A. N. Pathak, and L. K. Lehri, “Effect of plant waste incorporation by different methods under uninoculated and inoculated conditions on wheat crops,” Biological Wastes, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 267–273, 1987.
[97]
H. M. Abdulla and S. A. El-Shatoury, “Actinomycetes in rice straw decomposition,” Waste Management, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 850–853, 2007.
[98]
S. Fontaine, G. Bardoux, D. Benest, B. Verdier, A. Mariotti, and L. Abbadie, “Mechanisms of the priming effect in a Savannah Soil amended with cellulose,” Soil Science Society of America Journal, vol. 68, no. 1, pp. 125–131, 2004.
[99]
W. Han and M. He, “The application of exogenous cellulase to improve soil fertility and plant growth due to acceleration of straw decomposition,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 101, no. 10, pp. 3724–3731, 2010.
[100]
D. De Faveri, B. Aliakbarian, M. Avogadro, P. Perego, and A. Converti, “Improvement of olive oil phenolics content by means of enzyme formulations: effect of different enzyme activities and levels,” Biochemical Engineering Journal, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 149–156, 2008.
[101]
P. Fantozzi, G. Petruccioli, and G. Montedoro, “Trattamenti con additivi enzimatici alle paste di oliva sottoposte ad estrazione per pressione unica: influenze delle cultivars, dell'epoca di raccolta e della conservazione,” Grasse, vol. 54, pp. 381–388, 1977.
[102]
A. Ranalli, L. Pollastri, S. Contento, L. Lucera, and P. Del Re, “Enhancing the quality of virgin olive oil by use of a new vegetable enzyme extract during processing,” European Food Research and Technology, vol. 216, no. 2, pp. 109–115, 2003.
[103]
E. Chiacchierini, G. Mele, D. Restuccia, and G. Vinci, “Impact evaluation of innovative and sustainable extraction technologies on olive oil quality,” Trends in Food Science and Technology, vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 299–305, 2007.
[104]
I. ？inar, “Effects of cellulase and pectinase concentrations on the colour yield of enzyme extracted plant carotenoids,” Process Biochemistry, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 945–949, 2005.
[105]
R. Ory and A. J. St. Angelo, Enzymes in Food and Beverage Processing, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, USA, 1977.
[106]
O. W. Fennema, Food Chemistry, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, USA, 1985.
[107]
R. Bassi, B. Pineau, P. Dainese, and J. Marquardt, “Carotenoid-binding proteins of photosystem II,” European Journal of Biochemistry, vol. 212, no. 2, pp. 297–303, 1993.
[108]
M. A. Milala, A. Shugaba, A. Gidado, A. C. ENe, and J. A. Wafar, “Studies on the use of agricultural wastes for cellulase enzyme production by Aspergillus niger,” Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Science, vol. 1, pp. 325–328, 2005.
[109]
E. A. Abu, P. C. Onyenekwe, D. A. Ameh, A. S. Agbaji, and S. A. Ado, “Cellulase production from sorghum bran by Aspergillus niger SL:1: an assessment of pretreatment methods,” in Proceedings of the International Conference on Biotechnology: Commercialization and Food Security (ICBCFS '00), pp. 153–159, Abuja, Nigeria, 2000.
[110]
R. Gupta, G. Mehta, Y. P. Khasa, and R. C. Kuhad, “Fungal delignification of lignocellulosic biomass improves the saccharification of cellulosics,” Biodegradation, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 797–804, 2010.
[111]
R. Gupta, K. K. Sharma, and R. C. Kuhad, “Separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) of Prosopis juliflora, a woody substrate, for the production of cellulosic ethanol by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia stipitis-NCIM 3498,” Bioresource Technology, vol. 100, no. 3, pp. 1214–1220, 2009.
