[1] | Bolger DT, Newmark WD, Morrison TA, Doak DF (2008) The need for integrative approaches to understand and conserve migratory ungulates. Ecology Letters 11: 63–77.
|
[2] | Fryxell JM, Sinclair ARE (1988) Causes and consequences of migration by large herbivores. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3: 237–241. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art?icle/pii/0169534788901668. Accessed 2–11 July 4.
|
[3] | Mysterud A (1999) Seasonal migration pattern and home range of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in an altitudinal gradient in southern Norway. Journal of Zoology 247: 479–486.
|
[4] | Ball JP, Nordengren C, Wallin K (2001) Partial migration by large ungulates: characteristics of seasonal moose Alces alces ranges in northern Sweden. Wildlife Biology 7: 39–47.
|
[5] | Hebblewhite M, Merrill E, McDermid G (2008) A multi-scale test of the forage maturation hypothesis in a partially migratory ungulate population. Ecological Monographs 78: 141–166. Available: http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.18?90/06-1708.1. Accessed 2011 July 1 July.
|
[6] | Mysterud A, Loe LE, Zimmermann B, Bischof R, Veiberg V, et al.. (2011) Partial migration in expanding red deer populations at northern latitudes – a role for density dependence? Oikos 120: 1817–1825. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.11?11/j.1600-0706.2011.19439.x/abstract. Accessed 2012 Feb 1.
|
[7] | Albon SD, Langvatn R (1992) Plant phenology and the benefits of migration in a temperate ungulate. Oikos 65: 502–513.
|
[8] | Bischof R, Loe LE, Meisingset EL, Zimmermann B, Moorter B Van, et al. (2012) A migratory ungulate in the pursuit of spring: jumping or surfing the green wave? American Naturalist 180: 407–424 doi:10.1086/667590.
|
[9] | Hebblewhite M, Merrill EH (2007) Multiscale wolf predation risk for elk: does migration reduce risk? Oecologia 152: 377–387. Available: http://www.springerlink.com/content/c257?12v60t366641/. Accessed 2011 July 5.
|
[10] | Chapman BB, Br?nnmark C, Nilsson J?, Hansson LA (2011) Partial migration: an introduction. Oikos 120: 1761–1763.
|
[11] | Altizer S, Bartel R, Han BA (2011) Animal migration and infectious disease risk. Science (New York, NY) 331: 296–302. Available: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/331/60?15/296.abstract. Accessed 2013 March 6.
|
[12] | Hart BL (1990) Behavioral adaptations to pathogens and parasites: five strategies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 14: 273–294. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art?icle/pii/S0149763405800387. Accessed 2011 July 5.
|
[13] | Hutchings MR, Gordon IJ, Kyriazakis I, Jackson F (2001) Sheep avoidance of faeces-contaminated patches leads to a trade-off between intake rate of forage and parasitism in subsequent foraging decisions. Animal Behaviour 62: 955–964.
|
[14] | Hutchings MR, Milner JM, Gordon IJ, Kyriazakis I, Jackson F (2002) Grazing decisions of Soay sheep, Ovis aries, on St Kilda: a consequence of parasite distribution? Oikos 96: 235–244.
|
[15] | Hagemoen RIM, Reimers E (2002) Reindeer summer activity pattern in relation to weather and insect harassment. Journal of Animal Ecology 71: 883–892.
|
[16] | Bergerud AT, Ferguson R, Butler HE (1990) Spring migration and dispersion of wooland caribou at calving. Animal Behaviour 39: 360–368.
|
[17] | Hewetson R, Nolan J (1968) Resistance of cattle to cattle tick, Boophilus microplus. I. The development of resistance to experimental infestation. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 19: 323–333. Available: http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/AR9680?323. Accessed 2011 July 7.
|
[18] | Sutherst RW, Floyd RB, Bourne AS, Dallwitz MJ (1986) Cattle grazing behavior regulates tick populations. Experientia 42: 194–196. Available: http://www.springerlink.com/content/n454?761036183145/. Accessed 2011 July 7.
|
[19] | Kiffner C, L?dige C, Alings M, Vor T, Rühe F (2010) Abundance estimation of Ixodes ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) on roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Experimental and Applied Acarology 52: 73–84. Available: http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.100?7/s10493-010-9341-4. Accessed 2010 Dec 13.
|
[20] | Perret J-L, Guigoz E, Rais O, Gern L (2000) Influence of saturation deficit and temperature on Ixodes ricinus tick questing activity in a Lyme borreliosis-endemic area (Switzerland). Parasitology Research 86: 554–557. Available: http://www.springerlink.com/content/4uwv?fu75g9rkffxc/. Accessed 2010 Nov 4.
|
[21] | Randolph S, Chemini C, Furlanello C, Genchi C, Hails R, et al. (2002) The ecology of tick-borne infections in wildlife reservoirs. The Ecology of wildlife diseases. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, Vol. 1: 119–138.
|
[22] | Lindgren E, T?lleklint L, Polfeldt T (2000) Impact of climatic change on the northern latitude limit and population density of the disease-transmitting European tick Ixodes ricinus. Environmental Health Perspectives 108: 119–123 Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles?/PMC1637900/.
|
[23] | Jaenson TGT, Lindgren E (2011) The range of Ixodes ricinus and the risk of contracting Lyme borreliosis will increase northwards when the vegetation period becomes longer. Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases 2: 44–49. Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/art?icle/B986P-51PBGY4-2/2/680e11086a92dfb70?ab57c8ba38c301f. Accessed 2011 April 26.
|
[24] | Jore S, Viljugrein H, Hofshagen M, Brun-Hansen H, Kristoffersen AB, et al.. (2011) Multi-source analysis reveals latitudinal and altitudinal shifts in range of Ixodes ricinus at its northern distribution limit. Parasites & Vectors 4: Art. No.84. Available: http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_reco?rd.do?product=UA&search_mode=GeneralSear?ch&qid=2&SID=T2e3gp1KM7ngfCO6GKc&page=1&?doc=1.
|
[25] | Abrahamsen J, Jacobsen NK, Kalliola R, Dahl E, Wilborg L, et al. (1977) Naturgeografisk regioninndeling av Norden. Nordisk utredningsserie B 34: 1–135.
|
[26] | Mysterud A, Langvatn R, Yoccoz NG, Stenseth NC (2002) Large-scale habitat variability, delayed density effects and red deer populations in Norway. Journal of Animal Ecology 71: 569–580.
|
[27] | Milner J, Bonenfant C, Mysterud A, Gaillard JM, Csányi S, et al. (2006) Temporal and spatial development of red deer harvesting in Europe - biological and cultural factors. Journal of Applied Ecology 43: 721–734.
|
[28] | Austrheim G, Solberg EJ, Mysterud A (2011) Spatio-temporal variation in large herbivore pressure in Norway from 1949–1999: has decreased grazing by livestock been countered by increased browsing by cervids? Wildlife Biology 17: 286–298.
|
[29] | Vassallo M, Pichon B, Cabaret J, Figureau C, Perez-Eid C (2000) Methodology for sampling questing nymphs of Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae), the principal vector of Lyme disease in Europe. Journal of Medical Entomology 37: 335–339. Available: PM:15535574.
|
[30] | Dobson ADM, Taylor JL, Randolph SE (2011) Tick (Ixodes ricinus) abundance and seasonality at recreational sites in the UK: Hazards in relation to fine-scale habitat types revealed by complementary sampling methods. Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases 2: 67–74.
|
[31] | GRASS Development Team (2012) Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS GIS) Software. Available: http://grass.osgeo.org.
|
[32] | R Development Core Team (2013) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing Vienna Austria. Available: URL http://www.R-project.org/. Accessed 22 May 2013.
|
[33] | Shaw DJ, Dobson AP (1995) Patterns of macroparasite abundance and aggregation in wildlife populations: a quantitative review. Parasitology 111: 111–133.
|
[34] | R?dven R, M?nnikk? I, Ims RA, Yoccoz NG, Folstad I (2009) Parasite intensity and fur coloration in reindeer calves - contrasting artificial and natural selection. Journal of Animal Ecology 78: 600–607.
|
[35] | Martin TG, Wintle BA, Rhodes JR, Kuhnert PM, Field SA, et al. (2005) Zero tolerance ecology: improving ecological inference by modelling the source of zero observations. Ecology Letters 8: 1235–1246.
|
[36] | Skaug H, Fournier D, Nielsen A, Magnusson A, Bolker B (2011) glmmADMB: Generalized Linear Mixed Models Using AD Model Builder. Available: http://admb-project.org.
|
[37] | Wood SN (2011) Fast stable restricted maximum likelihood and marginal likelihood estimation of semiparametric generalized linear models. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society (B) 73: 3–36.
|
[38] | Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) Model selection and multimodel inference: a practical information-theoretic approach, 2nd edn. New York: Springer.
|
[39] | Hjeljord O (2001) Dispersal and migration in northern forest deer - are there unifying concepts? Alces 37: 353–370.
|
[40] | Cagnacci F, Focardi S, Heurich M, Stache A, Hewison AJM, et al.. (2011) Partial migration in roe deer: migratory and resident tactics are end points of a behavioural gradient determined by ecological factors. Oikos 120: 1790–1802. Available: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1600-0706?.2011.19441.x. Accessed 2012 March 5.
|
[41] | Tambs-Lyche H (1943) Ixodes ricinus og piroplasmosen i Norge (Meddelelse fra Bergens Museums zoologiske avdeling). Norsk veterin?r-tidsskrift 55: 337–366, 401–441, 449–506, 513–452.
|
[42] | Daniel M (1993) Influence of the microclimate on the vertical distribution of the tick Ixodes ricinus (L.) in Central Europe. Acarologia 34: 105–113.
|
[43] | Perret JL, Guerin PM, Diehl PA, Vlimant M, Gern L (2003) Darkness induces mobility, and saturation deficit limits questing duration, in the tick Ixodes ricinus. The journal of experimental biology 206: 1809–1815.
|
[44] | Daniel M, Cerny V, Dusbabek F, Honzakova E, Olejnicek J (1977) Influence of microclimate on the life cycle of the common tick Ixodes ricinus (L.) in an open area in comparison with forest habitats. Folia Parasitologica 24: 149–160. Available: PM:881143.
|
[45] | Jouda F, Perret JL, Gern L (2004) Ixodes ricinus density, and distribution and prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato infection along an altitudinal gradient. Journal of medical entomology 41: 162–169.
|
[46] | Materna J, Daniel M, Metelka L, Har?arik J (2008) The vertical distribution, density and the development of the tick Ixodes ricinus in mountain areas influenced by climate changes (The Krkono?e Mts., Czech Republic). International Journal of Medical Microbiology 298: 25–37 doi:10.1016/j.ijmm.2008.05.004.
|
[47] | Gilbert L (2010) Altitudinal patterns of tick and host abundance: a potential role for climate change in regulating tick-borne diseases? Oecologia 162: 217–225. Available: PM:19685082.
|
[48] | Chemini C, Rizzoli A, Merler S, Furlanello C, Genchi C (1997) Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae) infestation on roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in Trentino, Italian Alps. Parasitologia 39: 59–63. Available: PM:9419849.
|
[49] | Rizzoli A, Hauffe HC, Tagliapietra V, Neteler M, Rosà R (2009) Forest structure and roe deer abundance predict tick-borne encephalitis risk in Italy. Plos one 4.
|
[50] | Gilbert L, Maffey GL, Ramsay SL, Hester AJ (2012) The effect of deer management on the abundance of Ixodes ricinus in Scotland. Ecological Applications 22: 658–667.
|
[51] | Ruiz-Fons F, Gilbert L (2010) The role of deer as vehicles to move ticks, Ixodes ricinus, between contrasting habitats. International Journal of Parasitology 40: 1013–1020.
|
[52] | Mehl R (1983) The distribution and host relations of Norwegian ticks (Acari, Ixodides). Fauna Norvegica Series B 30: 46–51.
|
[53] | T?lleklint L, Jaenson TG (1997) Infestation of mammals by Ixodes ricinus ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) in south-central Sweden. Experimental & applied acarology 21: 755–771 Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/94232?70.
|
[54] | Lehmann T (1993) Ectoparasites: direct impact on host fitness. Parasitology today 9: 8–13 Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15463?655.
|
[55] | Hart BL (1994) Behavioural defense against parasites: interaction with parasite invasiveness. Parasitology 109: S139–51 Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/78548?47.
|
[56] | Scharf W, Schauer S, Freyburger F, Petrovec M, Schaarschmidt-Kiener D, et al.. (2011) Distinct host species correlate with Anaplasma phagocytophilum ankA gene clusters. Journal of clinical microbiology 49: 790–796. Available: http://jcm.asm.org/content/49/3/790.shor?t. Accessed 13 March 2013.
|
[57] | Petrovec M, Bidovec A, Sumner J, Nicholson W, Childs J, et al. (2002) Infection with Anaplasma phagocytophila in cervids from Slovenia: evidence of two genotypic lineages. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 114: 641–647.
|
[58] | Stuen S (2007) Anaplasma phagocytophilum - the most widespread tick-borne infection in animals in Europe. Veterinary research communications 31 Suppl 1: 79–84. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17682?851. Accessed 2012 March 27.
|
[59] | Stuen S, Bergstr?m K, Palmér E (2002) Reduced weight gain due to subclinical Anaplasma phagocytophilum (formerly Ehrlichia phagocytophila) infection. Experimental and Applied Acarology 28: 209–215. Available: http://www.springerlink.com/content/t0x0?64xq34r6g500/. Accessed 2012 June 15.
|
[60] | Gr?va L, Olesen I, Steinshamn H, Stuen S (2011) Prevalence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection and effect on lamb growth. Acta veterinaria Scandinavica 53: 30. Available: http://www.springerlink.com/content/e754?m53812262461/. Accessed 2012 June 15.
|
[61] | Stuen S, Moum T, Bernhoft A, Vene S (2006) A paretic condition in an Anaplasma phagocytophilum infected roe deer calf. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42: 170–174.
|
[62] | Little DA (1963) The effect of cattle tick infestation on the growth rate of cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 39: 6–10.
|
[63] | Mooring MS, Hart BL (1997) Self grooming in impala mothers and lambs: testing the body size and tick challenge principles. Animal Behaviour 53: 925–934.
|
[64] | Loe L, Bonenfant C, Mysterud A, Gaillard JM, Langvatn R, et al. (2005) Climate predictability and breeding phenology in red deer: timing and synchrony of rutting and calving in Norway and France. Journal of Animal Ecology 74: 579–588.
|