Outcome: The primary outcome is to determine how the cryptosporidium rates in Brazil may differ from the USA as a result of water sanitation methods. The rates of cryptosporidium occurrence are utilized for the Brazil versus USA comparison. Objectives: This systematic review aimed at determining how water sanitation practices affect the cryptosporidium rates between the United States and Brazil.Methods: A systematic search was conducted using Google Scholar and EBSCO databases for studies. The studies search was based on articles published between 2020 and 2025. Search strings included a combination of terms such as “cryptosporidium”, “water sanitation practices in USA” and “water sanitation in Brazil” and terms related to cryptosporidium and water quality. Results: Out of a total of 14,080 resources found, 15 were considered for review and complied with the inclusion criteria. Findings suggest that inadequate water sanitation practices led to higher rates of cryptosporidium in Brazil in comparison to the United States. Conclusions: The review suggests that water sanitation practices in Brazil and subpar to the USA, thereby facilitating the higher incidence of cryptosporidium rates.
Bellinzona, G., Nardi, T., Castelli, M., Batisti Biffignandi, G., Adjou, K., Betson, M., et al. (2024) Comparative Genomics of Cryptosporidiumparvum Reveals the Emergence of an Outbreak-Associated Population in Europe and Its Spread to the United States. GenomeResearch, 34, 877-887. https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.278830.123
[3]
Araújo, R.S.D., Barbosa, M.R.F., Dropa, M., Araujo de Castro, V.C., Galvani, A.T., Padula, J.A., et al. (2024) Environmental Surveillance of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Surface Supply Water and Treated Sewage Intended for Reuse from an Urban Area in Brazil. EnvironmentalPollution, 363, Article ID: 125089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.125089
[4]
Park, S.S. (2025) Milwaukee Cryptosporidium Outbreak. In: Park, S.S., Ed., Eco-Disasters, Springer, 51-54. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8667-4_12
[5]
Zini, L.B., Lorenzini, R., Camelo, L.G.G. and Gutterres, M. (2021) Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Surface Water Supply from 2016 to 2020 in South Brazil. EnvironmentalMonitoringandAssessment, 193, Article No. 496. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09280-y
[6]
Hall, M. (2023) Use of eDNA to determine the Presence of Cryptosporidium spp. in Freshwater Sources in Harlan, Kentucky. Lincoln Memorial University Institutional Repository. https://digitalcommons.lmunet.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=honorstheses
[7]
Rocha, J.M., da Silva, A.V., Harvey, T.V., Fehlberg, H.F. and Albuquerque, G.R. (2024) First Report of Contamination of Public Water System by Giardiaduodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. in Bahia, Northeastern Brazil. Semina: CiênciasAgrárias, 45, 111-130.
Keller, R., Pratte-Santos, R., Covre, M.A. and Ramos, E.C. (2022) Occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardiacysts in Public Water Supplies in Vitória, ES, Brazil. Journal of Urban and Environmental Engineering, 16, 162-170.
[10]
Ladeia, W.A., Martins, F.D.C., Nino, B.D.S.L., Silvério, A.D.C., da Silva, A.C., Ossada, R., et al. (2022) High Occurrence of Viable Forms of Cryptosporidium and GIARDIA in Domestic Sewage from an Agricultural Region of Brazil. JournalofWaterandHealth, 20, 1405-1415. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2022.127
[11]
Leal, D.A.G., Goulart, J.A.G., Bonatti, T.R., Araújo, R.S., Junior, J.A.J., Shimada, M.K., et al. (2024) A Two-Year Monitoring of Cryptosporidium spp. Oocysts and Giardia spp. Cysts in Freshwater and Seawater: A Complementary Strategy for Measuring Sanitary Patterns of Recreational Tropical Coastal Areas from Brazil. RegionalStudiesinMarineScience, 70, Article ID: 103356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2023.103356
[12]
Narzetti, D.A. and Marques, R.C. (2021) Access to Water and Sanitation Services in Brazilian Vulnerable Areas: The Role of Regulation and Recent Institutional Reform. Water, 13, Article 787. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060787
[13]
Oliveira, M.A., Rocha, J.M., Silva, A.V., Harvey, T.V., Fehlberg, H.F. and Albuquerque, G.R. (2024) First Report of Contamination of Public Water System by Giardiaduodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. in Bahia, Northeastern Brazil. Semina: CiênciasAgrárias, 45, 111-130.
[14]
Pineda, C.O., Leal, D.A.G., Fiuza, V.R.D.S., Jose, J., Borelli, G., Durigan, M., et al. (2020) Toxoplasmagondii Oocysts, Giardia Cysts and Cryptosporidium Oocysts in Outdoor Swimming Pools in Brazil. ZoonosesandPublicHealth, 67, 785-795. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12757
[15]
Rondello Bonatti, T., Vidal Siqueira-Castro, I.C., Averaldo Guiguet Leal, D., Durigan, M., Pedroso Dias, R.J. and Bueno Franco, R.M. (2023) Molecular Characterization of Waterborne Protozoa in Surface Water and Sediment in Brazil: A Taxonomic Survey of Ciliated Protozoa and Their Correlation with Giardiaduodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. EnvironmentalMonitoringandAssessment, 195, Article No. 470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11065-4
[16]
da Silva, D.P., de Sousa, A.C. and Scalize, P.S. (2023) Water for Human Consumption in Rural Areas Worldwide: A Systematic Review of the Presence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. JournalofEcologicalEngineering, 24, 29-45. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/172052
[17]
Visentini, C.B. (2024) Estimation and Evaluation of the Risks of Protozoa Infections Associated to the Water from a Treatment Plant in Southern Brazil Using the Quantitative Microbiological Risk Assessment Methodology (QMRA). EnvironmentalMonitoringandAssessment, 196, Article No. 439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-12577-3
