[1] | 参见何宝玉:《英国信托法原理与判例》,法律出版社2001年版,页1。
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[2] | 见《中华人民共和国信托法》第2条。
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[3] | 参见徐国香:《信托法研究》,五南图书出版公司1988年版,页1。
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[4] | (英)哈罗德·伯尔曼:《法律与革命》,梁治平译,中国大百科全书出版社1993年版,页289。
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[5] | 参见周小明:《信托制度比较法研究》,法律出版社1996年版,页75。在我国,用益设计(Use)也被称为“尤斯制度”。
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[6] | 参见何孝元:“信托法研究”,《中兴法学》1987年第1期,页6。
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[7] | Fidei Commissum意为“信任受托”,通常中文译为“遗产信托”,它是罗马法市民法区别于万民法上的遗赠的一种特殊的处分遗产方式,它是指被继承人通过遗嘱委托继承人在其死后将其遗产的全部或者一部分移交给他所指定的第三人。据说此“遗产信托”是外国人规避罗马市民法对他们的限制而依赖罗马人将遗产转移给后者,请其实现自己的目的,也就是让自己的后人作为该遗产的受益人。伴随着社会发展和商品经济的繁荣,罗马市民法和万民法合二为一,遗产信托和遗赠也逐步融合。参见周小明,见前注[5],页75-76。
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[8] | 所谓salman,是指受所有人的委托,在受让所有人的财产后,再依所有人的指示处分该财产的受托人而言。有学者认为,salman原本乃是为死因赠与而发展出来的制度,其法律结构乃是一种附条件的所有权转移,受益人在实体法上并未受保护,受托人只负有道义上的义务,尚难认为已经形成信托法理。与其将sal-man解释为信托制度的起源,毋宁认为它是遗嘱执行人制度的滥觞。参见赖源河、王志诚:《现代信托法论》,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,页2。
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[9] | 周小明,见前注[5],页77-79。
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[10] | (法)勒内·达维:《当代主要法律体系》,德漆竹生译,上海译文出版社1984年版,页329。
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[11] | 周小明,见前注[5],页75。
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[12] | (英)戴维·M·沃克主编:《牛津法律大辞典》,光明日报出版社1989年版,页1898。
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[13] | 张淳:《信托法原论》,南京大学出版社1994年版,页100。
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[14] | 参见李群星:“信托的法律性质与根本理念”,《法学研究》2000年第3期,页120。
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[15] | (英)F. H.劳森、B拉登著:《财产法》,施天涛等译,中国大百科全书出版社1998版,页100。
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[16] | 周小明,见前注[5],页29。
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[17] | 周小明,见前注[5],页29 。
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[18] | 周小明,见前注[5],页12-18。
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[19] | 参见王文宇:《信托法原理与商业信托原则》,元照出版公司1996年版,页125。
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[20] | 方嘉麟:《信托法之理论与实务》,页29;转引自周小明,见前注[5],页12。
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[21] | R. P. Meagher&WMC Gummou:Jacob''s Law of Trusts, Sydney: Butterworths. . 1977. pp. 582-583.
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[22] | Divd B. Parker and Anthony R. mellows,The Modern Law of Trusts,Sweet Maxwell Ltd.,2003. p.234.
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[23] | Charles F. Wilkinson, The Headwaters of the Public Trust: Some Thoughts on the Source and Scope of theTraditional Doctrine, 19 Envtl. L. 425.429( 1989);Erin Ryan, Public Trust and Distrust: The Theoretical Implica-tions of the Public Trust Doctrine for Natural Resource Management, Envtl. L, Vol. 31,477,484(2001).
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[24] | Note, Lyon&Fogerty: Unprecedented Extensions of the Public Trust, 70 Calif.L. Ret.1138,1140(1982).
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[25] | Opinion of the justices, 365 Mass. 681,684,313 N. E. 2d 561(1974).
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[26] | See Shively v. Bowlby, 152 U. S. 1,13(1894).
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[27] | Note,The Public Trust in Tidal Areas: A Sometimes Submerged Traditional Doctrine,79 Yale L. J. 762,768(1970).
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[28] | See William. Roogers,JR.,Enviromental Law, § 2. 20, at 155-56 West Publishing Company(1986).
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[29] | See Carol M. Rose, Joseph Sax and the Idea of the Public Trust, 25 Ecology L. Q. 351,355-56.
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[30] | Matthews, 95 N. J. 306,319,471 A. 2d 355,361,cert. denied, 105 S. Ct. 93(1984).
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[31] | ArnoldvMundy, 6 N. J. L. 1(1821).
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[32] | [35) Arnold v. Mundy, 6 N. J. L. 12(1821)
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[33] | Note, Public Trust Doctrine—Beach Access-The Public''s Right to Cross and to Use PrivatelyOwned Upper Beach Areas,15 Seton Hall L. Rev. 344,351(1985).
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[34] | Martin v. Waddell, 41 U. S. 367(1842).
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[35] | Martin v. Waddell, 41 U. S. 367,410- 411(1842).
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[36] | Note,Public Trust Doctrine—Beach Access—The Public''s Right to Cross and to Use PrivatelyOwned Upper Beach Areas,15 Seton Hall L. Rev. 344,352(1985).
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[37] | Martin v. Waddell, 41 U. S. 367,411(1842).
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[38] | Barneyv.Keokuk, 94 U.S. 324(1876).
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[39] | Barneyv.Keokuk, 94 U.S. 324,338(1876).
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[40] | See Goughv.Bell, 22 N. J. L. 441(Sup. Ct. 1850) , affd, 23 N. J. L. 624(1852)
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[41] | Illinois Central Railroad v. Illinois,146 U. S. 387(1892).
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[42] | Illinois Central Railroadv.Illinois, 146 U. S. 387 , 452-453(1892).
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[43] | Illinois Central Railroadv.Illinois,146 U.S. 387,453(1892).
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[44] | Erie R. Co.v.Tompkins, 304 U. S. 64 1938).
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[45] | See Erie R. Co.v.Tompkins, 304 U. S. 64, 78 (1938).关于Erie案的影响的详细论述,可参见Laurence H. Tribe, American Constitutional Law,3rd ed. New York: Foundation Press, 2000. 470一72.(discus-sing scope and impact of Erie).
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[46] | See Joseph L. Sax, The Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resources Law: Effective Judicial Intervention,68Mich. L. Rei.471(1970).
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[47] | See Joseph L. Sax, The Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resources Law: Effective Judicial Intervention,68 Mich. L. Rev. 605(1970).
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[48] | See, e. g.,J. B. Ruhl, The Metrics of Constitutional Amendments:And Why Proposed EnvironmentalQuality Amendments Don''t Measure Up, 74 Notre Dame L. Rei.245, 247(1999).
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[49] | National Audubon Soe''y v. Superior Court (Mono Lake),33 Cal. 3d 419,658 P. 2d 709,189 Cal. Rptr.346,cert. denied, 464 U.S. 977(1983).
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[50] | Michael C. Blumm&Thea Schwartz, Mono Lake and the Evolving Public Trust in Western Waters, 37Ariz. L. Rev. 701 ,735 (1995 ).
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[51] | Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Mississippi,484 U. S. 469(1988).
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[52] | See San Carlos Apache Tribev.Superior Court, 972 P. 2d 179,199 (Ariz. 1999).在该案中,亚利桑那州最高法院认为,公共信托理论适用与否属于州宪法问题,州立法不能对此作出规定。
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[53] | Alexandra B. Klass, Modern Public Trust Principles: Recognizing Rights and Integrating Standards,Notre Dame Law Review, vol. 82,699,728-730 (2006).
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[54] | 英文为state action,我国多译为“政府行为”,如有学者将state action理解为“州政府行为”,参见张千帆:“论宪法效力的界定及其对私法的影响”,《比较法研究》2004年第2期,页3;另见郑贤君:“公法价值向私法领域的再渗透—基本权利水平效力与契约自由原则”,《浙江学刊》2007年第1期,页124。也有学者将state action界定为“国家行为”,参见林来梵:《从规范宪法到宪法规范》,法律出版社1999年版,页284。然而,这种理解是片面的、有失偏颇。因为在美国纵向分权模式下,国家享有的仅仅是各州未让渡给联邦的权力,各州仍拥有相当的自主权。
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[55] | Richard Delgado, Our Better Natures: A Revisionist View of Joseph Sax''s Public Trust Theory of Environ-mental Protection, and Some Dark Thoughts on the Possibility of Law Reform, 44 Vand. L. Rei.1209, 1214(1991).
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[56] | Michael C. Blumm, Public Property and the Democratization of Western Water Law: A Modem View ofthe Public Trust Doctrine, Envtl. L. Vol. 19, 573 , 583 ( 1989).如在蒙大拿州,法院认为在通航水域可以提供休闲功能条件下即可适用公共信托理论。See Montana Coalition for Stream Accessv.Curran, 682 P. 2D 163,170一171(M. 1984).
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[57] | Palmer v. Virginia, 628 S. E. 2d 89-90(Va. Ct. App. 2006).
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[58] | Alexandra B. Klass,Modem Public Trust Principles: Recognizing Rights and Integrating Standards,Notre Dame Law Review. vol. 82.699.738 (2006).
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[59] | Illinois Central Railroad v. Illinois,146 U. S. 387,455-458(1892).
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[60] | Just v. Marinette County, 201 N. W. 2d 768-769 (Wis. 1972).
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[61] | National Audubon Soc''y v. Superior Court (Mono Lake),33 Cal. 3d 438-440,658 P. 2d 722-723,189 Cal. Rptr. 358-360,cert. denied, 464 U.S. 977 (1983).
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[62] | See, e. g.,Kootenai Envtl. Alliance,105 Idaho at 631,671 P. 2 1094;Shokalv.Dunn, 109 Idaho 330,336 n.2,707 P. 2d 441,447 n.2(1985).
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[63] | National Audubon Soc''yv.Superior Court (Mono Lake),33 Cal. 3d 419,441 ,658 P. 2d 709,724,189Cal. Rptr. 346, 361,cert. denied, 464 U.S. 977 (1983).
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[64] | In re Contested Case Hearing onWater Use, 83 P. 3d 664,694(Hawaii 2004).
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[65] | See, e. g., Dunning, The Public Trust: A Fundamental Doctrine of Amencan Property Law,19 Envtl. L.517(1989);Note, The Public Trust Doctrine as a Source of State Reserved Water Rights,63 Den. U. L. Rei.585,596[1986);Comment, The Public Trust in Maine''s Submerged Lands: Public Rights, State Obligation and the Roleof the Courts, 37 Me. L. Rev. 105.141(1985)
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[66] | See Joseph L. Sax, The Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resources Law: Effective Judicial Intervention,68 Mich. L. Rei.473(1970);Joseph L. Sax, Liberating the Public Trust Doctrine from its Historical Shackles, 14U. C. Danvis L. Ret.185(1980).
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[67] | See People ex rel. Scott v. Chicago Park Dist.,66 Ⅲ.2 65,80,360 N.E. 2 773,781(1976).
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[68] | Cf. Hawaii Hous. Authv.Midkiff, , 467 U.S. 229 (1984).
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[69] | See, e. g. , Dunning, The Public Trust: A Fundamental Doctrine of American Property Law, 19 Envil. L.517(1989);Note, The Public Trust Doctrine as a Source of State Reserved Water Rights, 63 Den. U. L. Rev. 585,596(1986);Comment, The Public Trust in Maine''s Submerged Lands: Public Rights, State Obligation and the Roleof the Courts, 37 Me. L. Rev. 105,141(1985.)
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[70] | W. Rodgers,Jr.,Environmental Law:Air and Water, § 2. 20. at164, St. Paul, Minn.,West Pub-lishing,(1986).
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[71] | See Sunstein, Deregulation and the Hard-Look Doctrine, 1983 S. Ct. Rev. 177,181-182.
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[72] | See Sunstein, Deregulation and the Hard-Look Doctrine, 1983 S. Ct. Rev. 183.
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[73] | National Audubon Soc''yv.Superior Court (Mono Lake),33 Cal. 3d 419 , 658 P. 2d 709,189 Cal. Rptr.346, cert. denied, 464 U.S. 977 (1983).
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[74] | Michael C. Blumm&Thea Schwartz, Mono Lake and the Evolving Public Trust in Western Waters, 37Ariz. L. Ret.701.711(1995).
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[75] | Shokalv.Dunn, 109 Idaho 330,707 P. 2d 447 n. 2(1985).
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[76] | 张淳,见前注[16],页100。
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[77] | 参见吕忠梅:“环境权的民法保护理论构造—对两大法系环境权理论的比较”,《私法》2001年第1卷,页6。
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[78] | 林素凤:《论行政法学上之公物制度》,中兴大学法研所论文,页73-75。
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[79] | 所谓“双层用益”的构造为:甲将土地转让给乙,规定乙为丙的用益、丙又为丁地用益而占有土地。这里,丙的用益为第一层用益但只是名义上的用益,丁的用益为第二层用益却为实际上的用益。但是,普通法院不承认双层用益,只对第一层用益适用“用益法”。据此,丙将会成为法律上的所有权人,而丁的用益则不受普通法保护。周小明,见前注[5],页81。
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[80] | P. V. Baker&P. St. Langan, Snell''s Principles of Equitable, Sweet&Maxwell, 28th. ed.,1982,Lon-don, p. 105.
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[81] | 参见周小明:《财产权的革新》,贵州人民出版社1995年版,页16。
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[82] | See Hardin. The Tragedy of the Commons, 162 Science 1243 (1968 ).
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[83] | Rose,The Tragedy of the Commons: Custom, Commerce and Inherently Public Property, 53 U. Chi. LRev. 711,723,749-761,774-777(1986).
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[84] | See Unite Statesv.State Water Resources Control Bd.,227 Cal. Rptr. 161,197 (Cal. Ct. App. 1986).
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[85] | Lake Bistineau Preservation Soc''yv.Wildlife and Fisheries Comm'' n , 895 So. 2d 821(La. Ct. App.2005).Save Ourselvesv.Louisiana Environmental Control Commission, 452,So. 2d. 1152(La. 1984).
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[86] | Parker v. New Hanover County, 619 S. E. 2d 875-876(N.C. Ct. App. 2005).
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