Protective effects of Spirulina maxima on hyperlipidemia and oxidative-stress induced by lead acetate in the liver and kidney

The results showed that Spirulina maxima prevented the lead acetate-induced significant changes on plasma and liver lipid levels and on the antioxidant status of the liver and kidney. On the other hand, Spirulina maxima succeeded to improve the biochemical parameters of the liver and kidney towards the normal values of the Control group.It was concluded that Spirulina maxima has protective effects on lead acetate-induced damage, and that the effects are associated with the antioxidant effect of Spirulina.The lead is a xenobiotic, persistent toxic [1,2], as other xenobiotics induces to different health risks since the fetal stage until senescence. On the other hand, although lead is one of the most useful metals, it is also one of the most toxic ones [3]. Also, both occupational and environmental exposures remain a serious problem in many developing and industrializing countries [4].Several reports have indicated that lead can cause neurological, hematological, gastrointestinal, reproductive, circulatory, and immunological pathologies, all of them related to the dose and the amount of time of lead exposure [5-8]. Also, the health risks occasioned by exposure to lead are considered public health problems at a world level.The liver plays a major role in lead's metabolism, and it is in special risk due to the oxidative action of this xenobiotic; given the unquestionable evidence that lead-induced lipid peroxidation of cellular membranes, plays a crucial role in the mechanisms of hepatotoxic action of these xenobiotics [9]. On the other hand, lead is known to also affect the kidney, which is another important target [10]. Lead produces oxidative damage in the kidney as evidenced by enhancing lipid peroxidation (LIP) [11,12].In vivo and in vitro studies suggest that lipid metabolism is altered both in acute and chronic exposure to lead [13]. Lead inhibits antioxidant enzyme activity, such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, and also decreases the level of glutathione, i