This article examines common barriers to achieving adequate levels of forest resource governance in countries of Latin America. It looks at the deficiencies of the policy and regulatory frameworks affecting forests, the common failure to impose the rule of law, the main factors that constrain the effectiveness of government actions in the forest sector and at the political barriers to introducing reforms for change in governance structures. The elimination of these barriers acquires new importance in the implementation of successful REDD+ programs in the countries of the region.
References
[1]
Saunders, J.; Nussbaum, R. Forest Governance and Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD). Energy, Environment and Development Programme; Royal Institute of International Affairs: London, UK, 2008.
[2]
Schmithüsen, F. Cross sector linkages related to sustainable forest management, policy and legal aspects. In Technical Meeting on Cross Sector Policy Impacts Between Forestry and Other Sectors; Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2002.
[3]
Miller, T.; Holmes, K.R. Index of Economic Freedom; The Heritage Foundation: Washington, DC, USA, 2010.
[4]
World Bank and International Finance Corporation Doing Business 2010 Suriname; The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2009.
[5]
World Bank and International Finance Corporation. Doing Business in Colombia 2010; The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2010.
[6]
Djankov, S.; La Porta, R.; Lopez-de-Silanes, F.; Shleifer, A. The regulation of entry. Quar. J. Econ.？2002, 117, 1–37, doi:10.1162/003355302753399436.
[7]
Deforestación Evitada. Una Guia REDD+ Colombia. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial; Conservación Internacional Colombia; Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza (WWF); The Nature Conservancy; Corporación Ecoversa; Fundación Natura; Agencia de Cooperación Americana (USAID). Patrimonio Natural—Fondo para la Biodiversidad y áreas Protegidas y Fondo para la Acción Ambiental; Ortega, S.C., Garcia-Guerrero, A., Ruiz, C-A., Sabogal, J., Vargas, J.D., Eds.; Bogotá: Colombia, UK, 2010.
[8]
Del Gatto, F. La Produccion Forestal no Controlada en Honduras. Qué es Cuánto Cuesta. Unas Respuestas Preliminares. In Consultant Report; Red de Manejo del Bosque Latifoliado de Honduras (REMBLAH): Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 2002.
[9]
Kaimowitz, D. The prospects for reduced emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD) in Mesoamerica. Int. Forest. Rev.？2008, 10, 485–495, doi:10.1505/ifor.10.3.485.
[10]
Boscolo, M.; Vargas Rios, M.T. Forest law enforcement and rural livelihoods in Bolivia. In Illegal Logging: Law Enforcement, Livelihoods and the Timber Trade; Tacconi, L., Ed.; Earthscan: London, UK, 2007.
[11]
Scherr, S.; White, A.; Kaimowitz, D. A New Agenda for Forest Conservation and Poverty Alleviation: Making Markets Work for Low-Income Producers; Forest Trends: Washington, DC, USA, 2004.
[12]
Playfair, M. Law Compliance, and Prevention and Control of Illegal Logging Activities in the Forest Sector of Suriname; The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2007.
[13]
The State of the World's Forests 2009; Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2009.
[14]
Cotula, L.; Mayers, J. Tenure in REDD Start Point or Afterthought?. Natural Resources Issues No. 15; International Institute for Environment and Development: London, UK, 2009.
[15]
Harvey, C.A.; Zerbock, O.; Papageorgiou, S.; Parra, A. What is needed to Make REDD+ Work on the Ground? Lessons Learned from Pilot Forest Carbon Initiatives; Conservation International: Arlington, VA, USA, 2010.
[16]
Enriquez, S. Assessment of Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Conservation in Mexico. Report prepared for the United States Agency for International Development; United States Agency for International Development: Washington, DC, USA, 2009.
[17]
Trevin, J.; Nasi, R. Forest Law Enforcement and Governance and Forest Practices in Guyana; CIFOR: Bogor, Indonesia, 2009.
[18]
Contreras-Hermosilla, A. The Underlying Causes of Forest Decline. CIFOR occasional paper 30; CIFOR: Bogor, Indonesia, 2000.
[19]
Soares-Filho, B.S.; Nepstad, D.C.; Curran, L.; Cerqueira, G.C.; Garcia, R.A.; Ramos, C.A.; Voll, E.; Mcdonald, A.; Lefebvre, P.; Schlesinger, P.; Mcgrath, D. Cenários de desmatamento para Amaz？nia. Estudos Avan？ados, 2005, 19, pp. 137–152. Available online: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&pid=S0103-40142005000200008&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=pt (accessed on 14 November 2010).
[20]
Laurance, W.F.; Goosem, M.; Laurance, S.G.W. Impacts of roads and linear clearings on tropical forests. Trends Ecol. Evol.？2009, 24, 659–669, doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.06.009. 19748151
[21]
Martins, O.S.; Moutinho, P.; Rettmann, R.; Pinto, E.P.P. Brazil. In REDD, Forest Governance and Rural Livelihoods. The Emerging Agenda; Springate-Bagiski, O., Wollenberg, E., Eds.; CIFOR: Bogor, Indonesia, 2010.
[22]
Amor-Conde, D.; Burgues, I.; Fleck, L.C.; Monterola, C.; Reid, J. Análisis Ambiental y Económico de Proyectos Carreteros en la Selva Maya. Un Estudio Regional. Serie Técnica 10; Conservation Strategy Fund: Arcata, CA, USA, 2007.
[23]
Dourojeanni, M.; Bandariarán, A.; Dourojeanni, D. Amazonía Peruana en 2021; Pronaturaleza: Santiago de Source, Perú, 2009.
[24]
Finer, M.; Jenkins, C.N.; Pimm, S.L.; Kane, B.; Ross, C. Oil and gas projects in the western Amazon: Threats to wilderness, biodiversity, and Indigenous peoples. PLoS ONE？2008, 3, e2932, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002932. 18716679
[25]
The End of the Hinterland: Forests, Conflict and Climate Change; Rights and Resources Initiative: Washington, DC, USA, 2010.
[26]
Brack, D. Controlling illegal logging: Consumer-country measures. Chatham House Briefing Paper; Chathem House: London, UK, 2010. Available online: www.illegal-logging.info/item_single.php?it_id=875&it=document (accessed on 20 May 2010).
[27]
Bull, G.; Bazett, M.; Schwab, O.; Nilsson, S.; White, A.; Maginnis, S. Industrial forest plantation subsidies: Impacts and implications. Forest Policy Econ.？2006, 9, 13–31, doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2005.01.004.
[28]
Southgate, D. Policies contributing to agricultural colonisation of Latin America's tropical forests. In Managing the World's Forests: Looking for Balance between Conservation and Development; Sharma, N., Ed.; Kendall/Hull Publishing: Dubuque, IA, USA, 1992.
[29]
Angelsen, A.; Kaimowitz, D. When does technological change in agriculture promote deforestation? Presented at the AAEA International Conference on Agricultural Intensification, 31 August–5 July 1998; Economic Development and the Environment: Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
[30]
Illegal Logging and Global Wood Markets: The Competitive Impacts on the US Wood Products Industry. Seneca Creek Associates and Wood Resources International: Washington, DC, USA, 2004. Available online: http://www.illegal-logging.info/uploads/afandpa.pdf (accessed on 1 July 2010).
[31]
Koyuncu, C.; Yilmaz, R. The impact of corruption on deforestation: A cross-country evidence. J. Dev. Areas？2009, 4, 213–222.
[32]
Irland, L.C. State Failure and Corruption: Challenges for Forest PolicyITTO Tropical Forest Update 19/1. ITTO: Yokohama, Japan, 2010; pp. 3–6. Available online: http://www.itto.int/en/tfu/id=2250 (accessed on 20 May 2010).
[33]
Kishor, N.; Damania, R. Crime and justice in the garden of Eden: Improving governance and reducing corruption in the forest sector. In The Many Faces of Corruption: Tracking Vulnerabilities at the Sectoral Level; Campos, J.E., Pradhan, S., Eds.; The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2007.
[34]
Maroni Consultores SAC. In Analisis Preliminar Sobre Gobernabilidad y Cumplimiento de la Legislacion del Sector Forestal en el Peru; The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2006.
[35]
Smith, J.; Colan, V.; Sabogal, C.; Snook, L. Why policy reforms fail to improve logging practices: The role of governance and norms in Peru. Forest Policy Econ.？2006, 8, 458–469, doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2005.08.001.
[36]
Bolivia Forestal 2010 El Deber: CFB Alerta por Reduccion del Concesiones Forestales; Camara Forestal de Bolivia: Santa Cruz, Bolivia, 2010.
[37]
Kishor, N.; Oksanen, T. Combating illegal logging and corruption in the forestry sector. In Environmental Matters Annual Review July 2005–June 2006; The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2006.
[38]
World Bank. Strenghtening Forest Law Enforcement and Governance: Addressing a Systemic Constraint to Sustainable Development. Report 36638 GLB; Sustainable Development Network: Washington, DC, USA, 2006.
[39]
Pacheco, P.; Barry, D.; Cronkleton, P.; Larson, A.M. The Role of Formal Institutions in the Use of Forest Resources in Latin America; CIFOR: Bogor, Indonesia, 2008.
[40]
Del Gatto, F. Barreras a la Legalidad en el Sector Forestal en Honduras; La Tala Ilegal en Centroamerica: Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 2002. Available online: http://www.talailegal-centroamerica.org (accessed on 1 July 2010).
[41]
Ampié Bustos, E. La Produccion Forestal no Controlada en el Municipio de Puerto Cabezas, Región Atlántico Norte; Nicambiental: Managua, Nicaragua, 2002.
[42]
Contreras-Hermosilla, A.; Doornbosch, R.; Lodge, M. The Economics of Illegal Logging and Associate Trade; OECD General Secretariat: Paris, France, 2007.
[43]
Kaufmann, D.; Kraay, A.; Mastruzzi, M. Governance matters VIII. Policy Research Working Paper 4978; Development Research Group, The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2009.
[44]
Perez Contreras, O. Adelantos y Progreso Alcanzado en Materias de Politicas de Compra de Maderas. Estudio de Caso—Peru; International Tropical Timbet Organization: Yokohama, Japan, 2009. Available online: http://www.itto.int/direct/topics/topics_pdf…/topics_id=2304&no=2&disp=inline (accessed on 14 November 2010).
[45]
Downie, A. Brazil's lofty climate goals depend on state, city and federal co-operation. Special Issue: Take on Climate Change; Federations, 16-18 March/April 2010. Available online: http://www.forumfed.org/en/products/magazine/vol9_num1/V9N1_EN.pdf (accessed on 26 January 2011).
[46]
Contreras-Hermosilla, A.; Vargas Rios, M.T. Reformas a la Política Forestal de Bolivia. Impactos Sociales Ambientales y Económicos de los Primeros Cinco Anos del Régimen Forestal Boliviano. Informe Especial CIFOR. Recursos Naturales y Ambiente？2007, 49-50, 44–57.
[47]
Navarro, G.; Del Gatto, F.; Schroeder, M. Ecuador's outsourced national forest control system. In Legal Timber, Verification and Governance in the Forest Sector; Overseas Development Institute: London, UK, 2008.
[48]
Brazil National and State REDD; Environmental Defense Fund: Washington, DC, USA, 2009.
