%0 Journal Article
%T Distribution and Fate of Military Explosives and Propellants in Soil: A Review
%A John Pichtel
%J Applied and Environmental Soil Science
%D 2012
%I Hindawi Publishing Corporation
%R 10.1155/2012/617236
%X Energetic materials comprise both explosives and propellants. When released to the biosphere, energetics are xenobiotic contaminants which pose toxic hazards to ecosystems, humans, and other biota. Soils worldwide are contaminated by energetic materials from manufacturing operations; military conflict; military training activities at firing and impact ranges; and open burning/open detonation (OB/OD) of obsolete munitions. Energetic materials undergo varying degrees of chemical and biochemical transformation depending on the compounds involved and environmental factors. This paper addresses the occurrence of energetic materials in soils including a discussion of their fates after contact with soil. Emphasis is placed on the explosives 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX), and the propellant ingredients nitroglycerin (NG), nitroguanidine (NQ), nitrocellulose (NC), 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT), and perchlorate. 1. Introduction Energetic compounds, defined as the active chemical components of explosives and propellants, are necessary both for peaceful (e.g., demolition and mining) and military purposes. Commonly used military energetic compounds include the explosives 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) [1]. Nitroglycerin (NG), nitroguanidine (NQ), nitrocellulose (NC), 2,4-dinitrotoluene (DNT), and various perchlorate formulations are employed in missile, rocket, and gun propellants [2, 3]. The chemical structures of these compounds appear in Figure 1. Figure 1: Chemical structures of energetic compounds: (a) 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT); (b) hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX); (c) octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-terazocine (HMX); (d) nitroglycerin (NG); (e) nitroguanidine (NQ); (f) nitrocellulose (NC); (g) 2,4-dinitrotoluene (DNT); (h) the perchlorate anion. As a result of military activities and due to improper management and disposal practices many energetic substances and their by-products have contaminated environments to levels that threaten the health of humans, livestock, wildlife, and ecosystems. In humans TNT is associated with abnormal liver function and anemia, and both TNT and RDX have been classified as potential human carcinogens [4, 5]. TNT toxicity has been demonstrated using earthworm reproduction tests [6], and studies with Vibrio fischeri have established TNT as being ˇ°very toxicˇ± to aquatic organisms [7]. Mutagenicity studies
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