The original application
of general relativity to the universe showed that the universe is expanding, albeit at a
decreasing rate. Supernova data have established that although early in its
history the universe was expanding at a decreasing rate, the rate of expansion
has been increasing for the past several billion years. Einstein’s equations
were modified by adding the cosmological constant to make the expansion of the universe
accelerate and
fit the data, giving birth to the notion of dark energy. However, there is to
date no good explanation of dark energy. This paper proposes that Einstein’s
original equations be left alone and that instead, the model assumed for the
expanding universe be changed: from a single uniformly isotropic expanding
space universe of constant mass to a similarly expanding universe surrounded by
an isotropic, uniform shell. The overall mass of the structure remains constant.
This new geometry produces the observed expansion behavior of the universe and
is simply a result of different initial conditions.
Riess, A.G., Filippenko, A.V., Challis, P., et al. (1998) Observational Evidence from Supernovae for an Accelerating Universe and a Cosmological Constant. Astrophysical Journal, 116, 1009-1038.
Conley, A., Guy, J., Sullivan, M., et al. (2011) Supernova Constraints and Systematic Uncertainties from the First Three Years of the Supernova Legacy Survey. The Astro-physical Journal, 192, Article ID: 1. https://doi.org/10.1088/0067-0049/192/1/1
Buchert, T., Coley, A.A., Kleinert, H., et al. (2016) Observational Challenges for the standard FLRW Model. International Journal of Modern Physics, D25, Article No. 1630007.
Riess, A.G., Macri, L., Casertano, S., et al. (2011) A 3% Solution: Determination of the Hubble Constant with the Hubble Space Telescope and Wide Field Camera 3. The Astrophysical Journal, 730, Article ID: 199.
Joyce, A., Lombriser, L. and Schmidt, F. (2016) Dark Energy versus Modified Gravity. Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science, 66, 95-122. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nucl-102115-044553
Célérier, M.N. (2014) Effects of Inhomogeneities on the Expansion of the Universe: A Challenge to Dark Energy? Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 484, Article ID: 012005. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/484/1/012005
Clarkson, C. (2012) Establishing Homogeneity of the Universe in the Shadow of Dark Energy. Comptes Rendus Physique, 13, 682-718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crhy.2012.04.005
Ishibashi, A. and Wald, R.M. (2006) Can the Acceleration of Our Universe Be Explained by the Effects of Inhomogeneities? Classical and Quantum Gravity, 23, 1. https://doi.org/10.1088/0264-9381/23/1/012
Giblin, J.T., Mertens, J.B. and Starkman, G.D. (2016) Departures from the Friedmann-Lemaitre-Robertston-Walker Cosmological Model in an Inhomogeneous Universe: A Numerical Examination. Physical Review Letters, 116, Article ID: 251301. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.251301
